Asa H. Craig, (Asa Hollister), 1847-1934
Much has been said throughout the entire civilized world in regard to the Temporal Powers of the Pope, especially what has been of personal interest to him in the last fifty years. While the discussion of the Pope’s powers in the past may not be of great interest to the reader, yet that which affects this generation is of vital importance and worthy of narration. The rise and fall of the Papal authority covers a period of more than one thousand one hundred and fifty years, and would fill a volume. This history, however, will cover but little more than its beginning and its ending.
At one time the Church of Rome exercised a species of sovereign authority over nearly all of Europe, parts of Asia, Africa, and its conquered provinces in all parts of the world. Up to the time of Martin Luther the religion of all Christendom was of the Catholic faith. This Church, alone, had fought the pagan world from the days of Nero. Its religion had subdued the powerful tribes of France and Germany. It had followed the conquest of England. It had fought, won, and lost in Persia, Egypt, and Turkey. It was prominent in the Crusades in their long years of contest. It had everywhere sought to spread the gospel of Christ and convert mankind to Christianity. It was the instrument of God to turn the nations of the earth from idolatry to the worship of the living faith. Men were found, through God’s Providence, fitted for the purpose of defending and extending the Church of the Apostle Peter.
From that time to this it has been one continual conflict over idolatry, sophistry, and isms. While the temporal power of the head of the Church has been slowly slipping away, yet its intelligence has reached deeper and deeper into the hearts of its people, until now it stands as a mighty tree spreading its influence over the entire earth.
According to history, we find that the beginning of the Temporal Power of the Popes dates from the year 754, under Pope Stephen II. In order to thoroughly understand from whence this power was obtained, we must go back about two hundred years and review the history of Italy and its fortunes.
In the year 568 there appeared on the plains of Italy an army of men called Lombards, from the region of the Upper Danube These men were one of the most powerful German tribes, who will now become known in Italian history. The name Lombard was given them because of their long beards and powerful expression of the face. No intelligence had reached the people of Italy of this invasion until they crossed the Alps and were in actual possession of territory. After years of desperate fighting, they succeeded in conquering the Italian Peninsula, excepting some of the large cities and small portions of territory. They immediately set up a powerful empire, which lasted almost exactly two hundred years. These people were intelligent, industrious, and instituted many improvements. They built up a system of education, devoted themselves to music, the arts, and various pagan achievements. They occupied that part of Italy called Lombardy, and being of light skin and hair, their descendants are still known by these fair features, which distinguish them from the inhabitants of Southern Italy.
Let us now drop the two hundred years and return to the time of Pope Stephen II. The Lombards were becoming troublesome. They had gone beyond the boundaries of their provinces and conquest seemed to occupy them more than their own possessions. The Pope, becoming alarmed lest their encroachments would reach Rome, besought Pepin, the king of the Franks, to come to his assistance. The king being under obligations to the Pope for past favors responded immediately, crossed the Alps with a large army, and gave the Lombards battle. After a series of successful battles, the king succeeded in driving them from their recently acquired territory, and in the settlement of peace, took a large part of their possessions. Not content with his services to the Pope, the king conceived the idea of donating these captured provinces to his benefactor, thus showing his twofold gratitude. The gratitude of the king was on account of the assistance rendered by the Pope in making him king of France.
We have now given a short narrative of the beginning of the temporal power of the Popes. It was not considered at the time the gift was made that the Pope should exercise absolute sovereignty, but it was given rather as a source of revenue to the Church and to maintain an ally, should future protection be required. But as time passed on these transferred lands were regarded as belonging to the Pope and he the temporal ruler, with all the rights and privileges of any prince. The king was to remain as the guardian and protector of this bountiful gift, and in times of danger was to come, as he had done before, to the rescue. By this gift we now come to understand how the name, Papal States, was instituted, and which remained under the temporal power of the Popes up to a recent date.
In the year 768 Pepin died and his kingdom was divided between his two sons, Carloman and Charles. Within three years Carloman died and by a free vote of the Franks the entire kingdom was conferred upon Charles, who from this time on is known in history as “Charles the Great,” or better still, as Charlemagne. It would, indeed, be interesting to follow this wonderful warrior, statesman and Christian, but space forbids more than a few remarks. We find him engaged for more than thirty years in an endeavor to subdue the pagan Saxons, one of the German tribes, and establishing Christianity. The Saxons finally yielded to the efforts of Charlemagne to overthrow paganism, and in their submission, they ardently embraced Christianity and accepted him as their sovereign.
One of his first undertakings was to conduct a campaign against the Lombards and wrest from them the entire country, and with this new acquisition of territory, confirm the donation of his father, Pepin. The new Pope, Leo III, was thankful for this kind remembrance, and in the year 800 an event of apparently small magnitude, but far-reaching in its effect, was enacted, which in later years developed the great countries of France, Germany, and Italy. At Rome there was a growing hostility against the Pope, arising from disputes between the Churches of the East and those of the West. The Eastern emperors had devised certain changes and reforms in their worship, and demanded that the Western, or Roman, Church should adopt them. This dispute reached Rome, and its inhabitants were being divided. The Roman bishops were most determined in their opposition to the Eastern emperors, and denounced them as heretics and schismatics. This action of the bishops precipitated trouble, and civil war was about to burst upon Rome, when the Pope called upon Charlemagne to aid him in subduing his refractory people and stopping the contention. The king soon appeared in person with an armed force and, entering Rome, seized the disturbers of the peace of the Church and punished them. The Pope was very grateful for the prompt services of the Frankish king and soon after crowned him emperor of all the Romans, and the rightful and consecrated successor of Caesar Augustus and Constantine.
To understand the object of the Pope in thus conferring this great title upon Charlemagne, we must note the causes and the objects to be attained. We have used the term Eastern and Western divisions of the Church of Rome. The Eastern Churches were ruled by the Byzantine rulers, and comprised the countries of Russia, Greece, Moldavia and Wallachia, and while they had been established by the same Christian authority as the Western, yet they were inclined to rebel as to the matter of the government of their worship and the order of its creed. This was the beginning of the Greek Church, which, in the ninth century, became independent and so remained under the Byzantine Empire until the capture of Constantinople in 1453. In a preceding chapter we give the history of the Greek Church, its origin, numbers, how conducted and where located.
To continue the causes that led the Pope to bestow the crown of emperor upon the king of the Franks, we must note that at this time the Empress Irene, of the Byzantine empire, committed the terrible crime of deposing her son, Constantine VI, and putting out his eyes, for the sole purpose of placing herself upon the throne. The Italians how claimed that the Eastern throne was vacant, as they contended that no woman could wear the crown of the Caesars. As the Church was in rebellion, the Italians demanded that the Pope declare the throne vacant and appoint some true Christian to the position, and thus subdue the feeling of insubordination to the Church and the Pope of Rome. Accordingly, the Pope looked around for some strong Western prince who could govern the whole of the Roman empire, and thus unite the two divisions of the Church into one harmonious whole.
Accordingly, as Charlemagne was participating in the religious festivities on Christmas Day in the Cathedral of St. Peter at Rome, as he knelt in his devotions and was wholly unconscious of this friend’s intentions, the Pope approached him and placed a gold crown upon his head and proclaimed him Emperor of all the Romans. But no good resulted from this movement The pastern branch of the Church paid no attention to the newly proclaimed emperor. They continued their line of administration just as though nothing had happened in Rome to demand obedience. The Roman empire and the Church can now be distinctly divided into the two divisions — the Eastern and Western divisions of the same empire.
While this new emperor enjoyed the imperial dignity only fourteen years, dying in 814, yet he made for himself, his country, and his Church a great name. Being a wise statesman, he established schools, collected libraries, reformed the laws, introduced industries, endowed the schools of art, encouraged science, and most bountifully provided for the maintenance of the Church, its missions, and its clergy. Of this great king it is said: “He laid the foundation of all that is noble, and beautiful, and useful in the history of the Middle Ages.”
After his death his mighty empire crumbled to pieces and there followed a troublesome period of wrangling, war and bloodshed. The empire was divided among his three grandchildren— Charles, Lewis and Lothair. France was given to Charles, Germany to Lewis, and Italy and the valley of the Rhone, with a portion of the Rhine, was given to Lothair, who also inherited the imperial title.
About the middle of the tenth century, we find that Otto the Great, Emperor of Germany, like a second Charlemagne, conceived the idea of restoring the whole Christian world to one grand world-empire. In 962, about one hundred and fifty years after the coronation, at Rome, of Charlemagne as emperor, Otto, by the same Papal authority, and at the same place, was crowned Emperor of all the Romans. For a generation this title had not been borne by anyone. The newly acquired power of Otto was used to advance his ambition. He would unite the whole Roman empire. He was its head, its ruler, and now would exercise his authority. This ambition to exercise control over the temporal affairs of the empire, soon caused a rupture with the powers of Rome. Two distinct claims were coming into conflict. The Emperor declared his right to proceed in the management of government as best suited his desires, leaving the spiritual teachings to the Church.
Christendom was being divided into two hostile divisions — the supporters of the imperial authority and the supporters of the Pope. There were three different theories of the proper relations of the Pope and Emperor to each other.
The first theory declared that both Pope and Emperor were divinely commissioned by God to govern the destiny of the souls and the bodies of men. The first to teach repentance, immortality of the soul and to govern the worship of faith. The second to be in actual control of the temporal power of government, but each to be on the same divine basis, or level, to work in harmony, maintain order and to advance and protect the Church.
The second theory placed the Imperial party, its Emperor, as superior to the Pope. That all powers of government were vested in the Emperor, independent of the Pope. That the duty of the Pope was to attend to the affairs of the Church.
The third theory was the opposite of the second. That the temporal powers of the Emperor must at all times be under the control of the Pope.
Thus we find that in but little more than two hundred years from the time the Pope first practically obtained temporal power, it is being disputed by the growing authority of kings and princes.
These conflicts are constantly occurring and producing hostilities, which are often detrimental to the cause of Christianity. The most interesting and instructive chapter in mediaeval history, after the tenth century, is the almost constant struggle between these two contending forces — Pope and Emperor — for the maintenance of the powers of temporal government.
One of the greatest promoters of the Papal fortunes was Pope Gregory VII, better known in history as Hildebrand. This Pope was one of the most noted characters of the Middle Ages. In 1049 he was called to Rome to become the adviser of the Church and to assist in shaping its duties. Hildebrand was called from the cloisters of a French monastery, and was a man of deep learning, great force of character, and did much to establish the universal spiritual and temporal sovereignty of the Holy See.
In 1073 Hildebrand was elected Pope Gregory VII, and immediately on his accession to power set about establishing two reforms — the enforcement of celibacy, and the suppression of simony. The first was to impress upon the clergy that their constant duty was to the Church, and in the acceptance of this important position they must sacrifice the attachments of home, friends and country, and thus devote all their energies to the advancement of the worship of God and the welfare of the Church. The second reform refers to the practice of Church positions being bestowed upon the friends of the princes and barons. This was conducted much as is the spoils system of the political parties of to-day. A prince, baron, lord, chief, or other power, in bestowing rewards, often sold or bestowed these positions upon those unworthy of them. To the Church this became an evil, as court favoritism was too often used to repay a debt of gratitude, or for the pleasure of friendship. In this way many were selected without regard to their fitness of ability, and the Church was made to suffer by so doing. The Pope now saw the great danger, and determined to remedy the evil by denying the right to bestow such gifts. The practice had gone so far that princes sought to secure revenue by actual sale or barter. The simony, was applied to this practice of giving, or selling, an office in the Church, the offense coming from Simon Magus, who offered Paul money for the gift of working miracles.
Pope Gregory was so determined to destroy this evil that he issued a decree forbidding this debasement of privilege, and commanded all ecclesiastics to refuse to do homage to the temporal lords who violated this decree. In the investiture of Church authority, Gregory decreed that the individual should receive the ring and staff, the emblem of his office, from the hands of the Pope alone, and anyone who should dare to disobey this command would be punished with the anathemas of the Church. The undertaking was one of immense magnitude, as the most powerful princes would not surrender their privileges without a struggle. The boldness displayed in enacting this measure, however, was the cause of its great success. When it is remembered that, at this time, the Church owned vast landed interests in Europe, it is easy to see that the control of the revenues was a great incentive for disobedience to the demand of the Pope.
The principal means of declaring punishment was by excommunication and Interdict.
The Excommunication was directed against individuals.
Such persons were cut off from any communication with the Church, and were denied the association of their friends. Or, if he were a king, or prince, lord or chief, his subjects were released from their oath of allegiance. This ban also extended to anyone providing food, clothing, or shelter. The individual was denied association of any kind.
The Interdict was decreed against a city, kingdom, or province, and wherever this ban was announced all religious ceremonies must cease. The Churches were declared closed, and all ceremonies, as of marriage, burial, or otherwise, were denied. Only baptism of children and the rites of extreme unction could be administered.
Gregory had resolved to meet this just order of reform with all the force of his Christian character. He looked upon the offering of Church positions as an article to be bought and sold with ill-concealed displeasure, and determinedly demanded that H should be abolished. The decree created a perfect hurricane of opposition, not only among the princes and sovereigns of Europe, but the clergy themselves were loud in its denunciation. The dispute thus begun distracted the empires of Europe for centuries, and was not settled until after the adjustment of the religious peace following the Reformation.
Some historians claim that the causes which led up to the Reformation did not emanate from Martin Luther, John Calvin, Ulric Zwingli, John Huss, or John de Wickliffe, but that the constant jealousies of the royal princes and the Church of Rome inspired them. That Pope Gregory struck the keynote of revolt when he sought to elevate the position of the Church officials by vesting the power of their appointment in the head of the Church and not subjecting them to the temporal power of a sovereign. It was this same class of opponents that refused to punish Martin Luther for disobedience; that sustained the Huguenots in France; that fed the spirit of Calvinism; that created revolutions in France, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, and the Netherlands. The Church revolt of this whole period was caused by the monarchs refusing to recognize the rights of discipline, the correction of evils, and the direct disobedience of the mandates of the Church.
The most formidable opposition came from Henry IV, Emperor of Germany, who refused to recognize the decree of the Pope, and in his desperate madness called a council of the clergy of Germany, and in retaliation of what he called intoleration, he deposed the Pope and then gave official notice to the world. Henry had not contemplated the result. He believed he could arouse the whole Christian world against the decree of Gregory, and that they would follow his persecution, and that the Pope would be forced to either relent or be removed from the chair. In this he was mistaken. The people were horrified at Henrys audacity to publicly proclaim the Pope deposed, and failed to support him in his madness. But the Pope gathered a council at Rome and, in turn, deposed the emperor and then excommunicated him. The effect was most wonderful indeed. Henry was looked upon as a man accursed by heaven. His subjects began to revolt, and his authority was disobeyed. His kingdom was going to pieces, and he was shunned by his subjects as unworthy the confidence, power, or position of sovereign. It was a most terrible ordeal for the emperor. His friends forsook him, his enemies were in revolt, and the Church was closed against him. In this wretched condition he sought the Pontiff at Canassa, among the Apennines, but the Pope refused to admit him to his presence. It was winter, yet the emperor would prove his penitence and for three days stood in the court-yard of the palace, barefooted and clothed in sackcloth. On the fourth day Gregory took compassion on him and admitted him to his presence, where, kneeling at the feet of the Pope, he sought forgiveness and pleaded to be reinstated to his favor, and to his people. Gregory removed the sentence of excommunication and bade him go home and sin no more. The Pope kindly admonished him for his disobedience, and directed him to unite his people, and in the future seek to advance Christianity and not to dethrone it.
We will not narrate the incidents that followed Henry’s restoration to his people, but having obtained their confidence, the spirit of revenge for his humiliation was now aroused, and he raised an army, invaded Italy, and drove Gregory into exile at Salerno, where, in 1085, he died. His last words were: “I have loved justice and hated iniquity, and therefore I die in exile.”
The revenge of Henry was but the boomerang of his own acts. The quarrel did not end here. The successors of Gregory determined to humble his proud spirit. He was excommunicated, and his own sons rose up in rebellion against him. He strove for a long time to maintain his power, but the cry of Gregory ever sounded in his ears, and at last he succumbed, and, in 11,06, died of a broken heart.
But the feud between the German princes and the Church of Rome did not cease with the death of Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV. A long and fierce contention ensued which lasted more than one hundred years. The proud House of Hohenstaufen continued the struggle of opposition to the Papal See, which had been going on so long between the German princes and the Church of Rome, but in this struggle the Bishops of Rome won a final triumph and the House of Hohenstaufen went down in utter ruin. The fight had been long and bitter, and in the issue of this century of conflict their power was broken, never again to rise in its past glory and strength.