©2025 Victor R. Claveau, MJ
If Peter held a position of primacy, the other Apostles would have to know that and would have reflected that role thrust on Peter by Christ in their relationships to him. In other words, does the Bible reveal a primary place or role for Peter consciously acknowledged by the New Testament writers?
A biblical portrait of Peter attests to the preeminent role of Peter among the writers of the New Testament.
The Evangelists usually make Peter the spokesperson for all the apostles. Mk 8:29; Mt 18:21; Lk 12:41; John 6:67.
In especially dramatic scenes in the Gospels, Peter is often the central figure. Mt 14:28; Lk 5:3; Mk 10:28; Mt 17:24.
Peter is always named first when the apostles are listed in the synoptic gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. Mk 3:16; Mt 10:2; Lk 6:13; Acts 1:13.
It is not uncommon that the apostles are simply referred to as “Peter and his companions.” Mk 1:36; Lk 9:32; Mk 16:7.
In light of the special calling on his life, the sacred authors refer to Peter as being singled out and being shown signs of respect. John 20:3; John 21:15-17.
In Paul’s letters, Peter is called the first witness to the Resurrection. 1 Cor 15:3.
Paul repeatedly called Peter “Cephas,” the name given him by Christ. Gal 1:18; Gal 2:9; Gal 2:11; Gal 2:14; 1 Cor 1:12; 1 Cor 3:22; 1 Cor 9:5.
There are 15 references by St. Luke, in the Acts of the Apostles which clearly acknowledge Peter’s leadership role. Acts 2:14; Acts 3:12; Acts 4:8; Acts 5:3; Acts 5:29; Acts 8:20; Acts 10:34; Acts 11:4; Acts 15:7; Acts 3:6; Acts 9:34; Acts 9:40; Acts 5:15; Acts 10:9; Acts 10:46.
The Gospels make explicit statements about Peter’s unique role in the church. Lk 22:31; John 21:15.
In the writings of the Fathers we find:
Prudentius calls him “the first disciple of God”
St. Augustine “the figure of the Church.”
St. John Chrysostom “the mouthpiece of the disciples and teacher of the world.”
St. Ephrem Syrus “the candle, the tongue of the disciples, and the voice of preachers.”
St Cyril of Jerusalem “the prince of the apostles, and the highest preacher of the Church.”
Matthew Chapter 16, Verse 18: The Primacy of Peter
In the 16th chapter of Matthew’s Gospel, Christ singled out the Apostle Peter for the central position of founding His Church and gives to Peter the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven.
Mt 16:15: (Jesus) said to them, “Who do you say that I am?” “You are the Messiah,” Simon Peter answered, “the Son of the living God!” Jesus replied, “Blest are you, Simon son of Jonah! No mere man has revealed this to you, but my heavenly Father. I for my part declare to you, you are ‘Rock’ and on this rock I will build my church, and the jaws of death shall not prevail against it. I entrust to you the keys of the kingdom of heaven. Whatever you declare bound on earth shall be bound in heaven; whatever you declare loosed on earth shall be loosed in heaven.” (NAB)
This is perhaps the most pivotal passage of the Bible which divides Roman Catholic Christians from Protestant and Pentecostal Christians. This is the scripture where Christ singled out Peter from the rest of the Apostles for special consideration and authority.
The context for interpreting the meaning of the passage is set in the confession of Peter.
Mt 16:13-17: When Jesus came to the neighborhood of Caesarea Philippi, he asked his disciples this question: “Who do people say that the Son of Man is?” They replied, “Some say John the Baptizer, others Elijah, still others Jeremiah or one of the prophets.” “And you,” he said to them, “who do you say that I am?” “You are the Messiah,” Simon Peter answered “the Son of the living God!” Jesus replied, “Blest are you, Simon son of Jonah! No mere man has revealed this to you, but my heavenly Father.” (NAB)
Christ then gives Simon bar-Jonah a new name and a commission.
Mt 16:18: “I for my part declare to you, you are ‘Rock,’ and on this rock I will build my church, and the jaws of death shall not prevail against it.” (NAB)
Jesus renamed Simon bar Jonah for a purpose. The literalness of the play on words–a linguistic pun–is made clear. A pun is a pun because of the literalness of the play on words. This was precisely what Jesus was saying. “You are Rocky and on this rock I will build my church.”
Christ continues with the conferral of the “keys” which appears to be a clear statement of a position of leadership authority.
Mt 16:19-20: “I will entrust to you (singular) the keys of the kingdom of heaven. Whatever you declare bound on earth shall be bound in heaven; whatever you declare loosed on earth shall be loosed in heaven.” (NAB)
This biblical commission echoes one other conferral of keys in the Bible. Shebna receives the keys of the royal palace.
Is 22:22: I will place the key of the House of David on his shoulder; when he opens, no one shall shut, when he shuts, no one shall open. (NAB)
Apart from this passage, there is no background in biblical language for binding and loosening.
In Rabbinical Judaism, the words signify rabbinical decisions; to bind is to give a decision that imposes an obligation, and to loose is to give a decision that removes an obligation.
Mt 18:15-18: “If your brother should commit some wrong against you, go and point out his fault, but keep it between the two of you. If he listens to you, you have won your brother over. If he does not listen, summon another, so that every case may stand on the word of two or three witnesses. If he ignores them, refer to the church (ekklesia). If he ignores even the church, then treat him as a Gentile or a tax collector. I assure you, whatever you declare bound on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you declare loosed on earth shall be held loosed in heaven.” (NAB)
In 18:18, the Apostles share in the power to bind and loose that was given to Peter in 16:19; what was given to Peter alone is now shared by the whole Church in the person of the Apostles.
The question to be asked in seeking to grasp the literal meaning of Matthew in conveying what Christ had in his mind in these words to Peter is what was understood by Peter and the other apostles and what was handed on (paradosis) by the Apostolic Church and the constant faith and practice of the Church regarding the meaning of these words of Christ.
The best spokespersons for an understanding of Matthew would be members of the Apostolic Church, those who heard the words of Christ and writers of the New Testament who recorded the words and deeds of Christ and the early church.
Among the Apostolic Fathers, the same recognition can be shown.
St. John Chrysostom in the 4th century in his comments on Matthew 16:18 calling Peter “the foundation of the Church, that he was really Peter” (the Rock) “both in name and in deed.”
Tertullian (Rome, 160 – 220 AD)
Peter alone do I find …to have been married. Monogamist I am led to presume him by consideration of the church, which, built on him, was destined to appoint every grade of her Order from monogamists. (On Monogamy, Ch. 8)
Clement (Alexandria, 150 – 215 AD)
Therefore, on hearing those words, the blessed Peter, the chosen, the pre-eminent, the first of the disciples, for whom alone and Himself the Savior paid tribute, quickly seized and comprehended the saying. And what does he say? “Lo, we have left all and followed Thee.” (Who Is the Rich Man That Shall Be Saved, Ch. 21)
Cyprian (Carthage, 200 – 258 AD)
Upon him (Peter), being one, He (Christ) built His Church and although after His resurrection He bestows equal power on all the Apostles, and says: “As the Father has sent me, I also send you. Receive the Holy Spirit: if you forgive the sins of anyone, they will be forgiven him; if you retain the sins of anyone, they will be retained” (Jn 20:21), that He might display unity, He established by His authority the origin of the same unity as beginning from one. (On the Unity of the Catholic Church, Ch. 4)
Cyril (Jerusalem, 315 – 387 AD)
Peter, the foremost of the Apostles, denied the Lord thrice before a little maid: but he repented himself, and wept bitterly. (Catecheses, No. 2:19)
Augustine (Numidia, now Algeria, 354 – 430 AD) (Letters, No 53)
For, if the order of succession of Bishops is to be considered, how much more surely, truly and safely do we number them from Peter, to whom, as representing the whole Church, the Lord said: “Upon this rock I will build my church and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it” (Mt 16:18). For, to Peter succeeded Linus, to Linus Clement, to Clement Anacletus, to Anacletus, Evaristus …
The Roman Catholic Church has infallibly defined the interpretation of Matthew 16.
The Council of Ephesus, 432 AD
No one doubts, in fact, it is obvious to all ages that the holy and most Blessed Peter, head and Prince of the Apostles, the pillar of faith, and the foundation of the Catholic Church, received the keys of the kingdom from our Lord Jesus Christ, the savior and redeemer of the human race.
First Vatican Council, 1870
Therefore, if anyone says that the blessed Apostle Peter was not constituted by Christ the Lord as the Prince of all the Apostles and the visible head of the whole Church militant, or that he received immediately and directly from Jesus Christ our Lord only a primary of honor and not a true and proper primacy of jurisdiction: anathema sit. (The First Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ, Ch. 2)
Apostolic Succession
The first Christians had no doubts about how to determine which claimant, among the many contending for the title, was the true Church. The test was simple: Just trace the apostolic succession of the claimants. This simple procedure worked every time.
Clement of Rome: (Epistle to the Corinthians 42:4-5, 44:1-3 [A.D. 80])
“Through countryside and city [the apostles] preached, and they appointed their earliest converts, testing them by the Spirit, to be the bishops and deacons of future believers. Nor was this a novelty, for bishops and deacons had been written about a long time earlier. Our apostles knew through our Lord Jesus Christ that there world be strife for the office of bishop. For this reason, therefore, having received perfect foreknowledge, they appointed those who have already been mentioned and afterwards added the further provision that, if they should die, other approved men should succeed to their ministry.”
Hegsippus: (Memoirs 4:22:1 [ca. A.D. 180])
“When I had come to Rome, I [visited] Anicetus, whose deacon was Eleutherus. And after Anicetus [died], Soter succeeded, and after him Eleutherus. In each succession and in each city there is a continuance of that which is proclaimed by the law, the Prophets, and the Lord.”.
Irenaeus: (Against Heresies 3:3:1 [inter A.D. 180-199]).
“It is possible, then, for everyone in every church, who may wish to know the truth, to contemplate the tradition of the apostles which has been made known to us throughout the world. And we are in a position to enumerate those who were instituted bishops by the apostles and their successors down to our own times, men who neither knew nor taught anything like what these heretics rave about….Surly they wished all those and their successors, to whom they handed on their authority, to be perfect and without reproach.”
“Polycarp was instructed not only by the apostles and conversed with many who had seen Christ, but was also appointed bishop of the church in Smyrna by the apostles in Asia. I saw him in my early youth, for he tarried a long time and when quite old departed this life in a glorious and most noble martyrdom. He always taught those things which he learned from the apostles and which the Church had handed down and which are true. To these things the churches in Asia bear witness, as do also the successors of Polycarp even to the present time.” (Ibid 3:3:4).
“It is necessary to obey those who are the presbyters in the Church, those who, as we have shown have succession from the apostles, those who have received, with the succession of the episcopate, the sure charism of truth according to the good pleasure of the Father.” (Ibid. 4:26:2, 33:8).
Firmilian: (Epistle to Cyprian 75:16 [inter A.D. 255-256]).
“But what is his error and how great his blindness….who does not remain on the foundation of the one true Church which was founded on the rock by Christ, can be learned from this, which Christ said to Peter alone. “Whatever things you shall bind on earth shall also be bound in heaven; and whatever you loose on earth, they shall also be loosed in heaven; and by this, again in the Gospel, when Christ breathed upon the apostles alone, saying to them, `Receive the Holy Spirit. If you forgive any man his sins they shall be forgiven, and if you retain any man’s sins they shall be retained.’ The power of forgiving sins was given to the apostles and the churches which these men, sent by Christ, established and to the bishops who succeeded them by being ordained in their place.”
Jerome: (Epistle to Heliodorus 14:8 [inter A.D. 374-379]).
“Far be it from me to speak adversely of any of these clergy who, in succession from the apostles, confect by their sacred words the Body of Christ and through whose efforts also it is that we are Christians.”
Gregory I: (Homilies on the Gospels 2:26:4 [A.D. 590-591]).
“The disciples receive as their lot the preeminence of celestial judgment, so that, in God’s stead, they retain sins for some and for some they forgive them [John 20:22-23]….Certainly it is now the bishops who hold their place in the Church. They receive the authority of binding and loosing, who have as their lot a degree of governing. It is a magnificent honor, but that honor carries with it a heavy burden.”
The Infallibility of the Pope
Jesus Christ was sent by the Father and was known as an authentic Teacher. Forty times in the New Testament, Christ is called “teacher” (didaskalos):
Mt 23:8-10: One among you is your teacher, the rest are learners …Avoid being called teachers. Only one is your teacher, the Messiah. (NAB)
Twelve times Christ is called “Rabbi” (master, the address of teachers):
Mt 7:28-29: Jesus finished this discourse and left the crowds spellbound by his teaching. The reason was that he taught with authority and not like their scribes. (NAB)
Jo 13:13-15: You address me as “Teacher” and “Lord”, and fittingly enough, for that is what I am. But if I washed your feet – I who am Teacher and Lord – then you must wash each other’s feet. What I just did was to give you an example: as I have done, so you must do. (NAB)
The Gospels record Christ handing over to the Apostles his own mission, or divine office which he had as man.
John 17:18: As you have sent me into the world, so I have sent them into the world. (NAB)
John 20:21: As the Father has sent me, so I send you. (NAB)
Mt 10:40: He who welcomes you welcomes me, and he who welcomes me welcomes him who sent me. (NAB)
Lk 10:16: He who hears you, hears me. He who rejects you, rejects me. And he who rejects me, rejects him who sent me. (NAB)
Mt 28:18-19: Jesus came forward and addressed them in these words: “Full authority has been given me both in heaven and earth; go, therefore, and make disciples of all nations. Baptize them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. (NAB)
Christ is revealed instituting a perpetually enduring truth-teaching, truth-handling authority in the Apostles.
Mt 28:20: Teach them (all nations) to carry out everything I have commanded you. And know that I am with you always, until the end of the world. (NAB)
Jo 14:16-17: I will ask the Father and he will give you another Paraclete to be with you always: the Spirit of Truth, whom the world cannot accept, since it neither sees him nor recognizes him; but he remains with you and will be within you. (NAB)
John 15:26: When the Paraclete comes, the Spirit of Truth who comes from the Father -and whom I myself will send from the Father – he will bear witness on my behalf. (NAB)
John 16:12: I have much more to tell you, but you cannot bear it now. When he comes, however, being the Spirit of Truth he will guide you to all truth. (NAB)
Acts 1:8: You will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes down on you; then you are to be my witnesses in Jerusalem, throughout Judea and Samaria, yes, even to the ends of the earth. (NAB)
We, as Roman Catholic Christians, believe that Christ’s teaching authority and truth charism continues in His Body the Church in the successors both of Peter and then the apostles, and then to their successors–the trustworthy men–the successor of Peter in the Bishop of Rome, and the successors of the apostles, the ‘episcopoi’ or bishops from apostolic time to the present.
Let us now review the Teaching of the Church on Papal Infallibility.
The doctrine defined by Vatican Council I may be briefly stated as follows: The Pope is infallible when he speaks ex cathedra, i.e., when, as Pastor and Teacher of all Christians, he defines, in virtue of his supreme Apostolic authority, a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the universal Church. He is said to “define” a doctrine, when he makes it clear that the doctrine must be believed with a firm, interior assent of faith. The doctrine must be concerned with faith or morals and must belong to the Deposit of Faith, i.e., it must be found in Scripture or Sacred Tradition.
There are Four conditions which fix the sphere of Papal Infallibility.
1st. When the Pope speaks as Chief Pastor and teacher, as Bishop of Christ’s Church.
2nd. When the Pope speaks to the Universal Church, to Christians everywhere in the world.
3rd. When the Pope defines and finally determines a doctrine by virtue of supreme Apostolic authority.
4th. When the Pope define a doctrine upon faith or morals.
What Infallibility Means.
The Pope’s prerogative is with regard to defining doctrines that are explicitly and implicitly in the deposit of faith given by Christ in the keeping of His Church.
It Means — Not that the Pope is inspired or that he is immune from sin (impeccability):
It Means — That the Pope is Divinely protected from contradicting, from denying and from changing the revelations of Christ.
It Means — Not that the Pope receives new revelations:
It Means — That the Pope holds inviolate the truths revealed.
It Means — Not that the Pope invents new doctrines or that he cannot err in matters economic, political, scientific, or historical:
It Means — That the Pope cannot admit doctrinal changes in religion.
It Means — Not that the Pope is given the power to dictate to Caesar; to depose rulers, to absolve persons from their obligations to the State:
It Means — The Pope’s infallible power lies exclusively within the sphere of faith and morals.
Reason Shows us the Practical Necessity of Papal Infallibility.
Reason itself demands that there should be in the Church an organ of infallibility capable of dealing with manifest corruptions of doctrine at their very inception. Such an organ of infallibility is found in the supreme teaching authority of the Pope. His prompt decision will spare the Church a multitude of evils. The only other organ of infallibility of which there can be any question is a General Council,[1] i.e., a council consisting of a large number of bishops, representative of the entire Church, assembled at the summons or with the approval of the Pope, and passing doctrinal or disciplinary decrees which he confirms. Such a body, it is manifest, cannot be assembled without long delay, and, at times, owing to wars or other disturbances, cannot be assembled at all and hence is not an adequate organ of infallibility.
The Doctrines of Papal Primacy and Infallibility are found in Tradition
The voice of Tradition, as in the case of the Primacy, grows clearer with the progress of the centuries.
The following quotations are used to prove that infallibility was exercised by the Pope in condemning heresies, in excommunicating heretics, and in defining doctrines of faith and morals, through the centuries:
1st Century
Pope St. Clement of his own volition sent an Epistle to the Corinthians, and by his pontifical power settled the trouble in the Church at Corinth.
2nd Century
Origen says: “When the chief authority for feeding the sheep was given to Peter, and upon him as on the earth the Church was founded” (Lit, V in Epist. ad Rom).
St. Irenaeus (130-202) declares that “Under this Clement no small sedition took place among the brethren at Corinth, and the Church at Rome sent a most sufficient letter to the Corinthians, establishing then in peace, and renewing their faith, and announcing the tradition it had already received from the apostles.
Towards the end of the second century, St. Irenaeus praises the See of Rome as “the greatest Church,” and says that the faithful everywhere “must resort to it” or “must agree with it.”[2]
3rd Century
About the beginning of the third century, Pope Zephyrinus condemns the Montanists,[3] who henceforward are regarded as outcasts from the Church.
St. Cyprian says: The Roman See is “the mother and root of the Catholic Church”; to communicate with the lawful pope is to hold the unity of the Catholic Church.
4th Century
In the fourth century, Pope Julius remonstrated (342) with the Eusebians: “Why were we not written to concerning the Church of Alexandria? or, are you ignorant that this has been the custom first to write to us, and then what is just to be decreed from this place….For what we have received from the Blessed Apostle Peter, that I make known to you.”[4]
St. Ambrose says: “Where Peter is, there is the Church” (Ps 11:30).
St. Jerome writes to Pope Damasus: “I, following none at first but Christ, am linked in communion with thy blessedness, that is, with the Chair of Peter, upon that rock I know the Church is built” (Epist., XV, ed. Damas, tom. I. 38).
5th Century
In the fifth century, the bishops at the Council of Chalcedon (451) in the words already quoted said, “Peter has spoken through Leo.” They subscribed to his definition of faith, saying “This is the faith of the Fathers; we all follow it.”[5] From this century onward the doctrine was universally acknowledged in the practical life of the Church. It was accepted at the third Council of Constantinople (680-681), and all but defined in express terms by the Council of Florence (1438-1445), which declared “that the Roman Pontiff is the successor of St. Peter,…and the true Vicar of Christ, the head of the whole Church, the father and teacher of all Christians, and that to him, in Blessed Peter, Our Lord Jesus Christ gave full power to feed, to rule, and to govern the entire Church.”
After hearing the Letter of Pope Leo I, the Fathers of the Council of Chalcedon accepted the statement: “So do we believe…Peter has spoken through Leo” (Harduin, II, 306).
The Fathers of Ephesus declared that they are compelled to condemn the heresy of Nestorius “by the sacred canons and by the letter of our holy father and co-minister, Celestine, the Bishop of Rome” (Harduin, I, 1471).
St. Augustine testifies that, after Pope Innocent I had communicated the condemnation of the heretical Pelegian teachings, “Rome’s reply has come; the case is closed” (Serm 81, c. 10.; Patrologia Latina 38, 734).
Again, speaking of the same heresy, he insists that “all doubt has been removed by the letter of Pope Innocent of blessed memory” (C. Duas, Epist. Pelag., II, 3, 5; Patrologia Latina XLIV, 574).
6th Century
Pope Pelagius II in a letter to the schismatic bishops of Istria: “Consider dearly beloved, that the truth cannot be corrupted, nor can the faith of Peter be changed or adulterated. For since the devil tries to deceive all the disciples, the Lord testifies that He has prayed for Peter alone, and has willed that the others be confirmed by him.”
DIFFICULTIES ANSWERED
Misconceptions as to Papal Infallibility
To remove some gross misconceptions–Papal Infallibility does not imply impeccability, or sinlessness. The Pope is infallible in doctrine, but not impeccable in conduct. He must work out his salvation “in fear and trembling” like other men, sharing with St. Paul the apprehension “…after having preached to others I myself should be rejected.”[6] Neither does Papal Infallibility imply a power to make new revelations i.e., to disclose to man Divine truths previously unknown. The whole Christian revelation was delivered to the Apostles. The Pope, in the exercise of Infallibility, merely explains it without adding anything to it. Nor are his infallible utterances inspired. For inspiration we require: (a) that the writer or speaker be moved by God Himself to write or speak; and (2) that he be so guided by God, while writing or speaking, that he expresses what God himself wishes to express and nothing more. God is the author of inspired utterances. He is not the author of Papal definitions, but he guarantees them against error.[7]
The Bible, the written Word of God, does not claim that it is the only source of revelation. It does name those persons who are chosen to hand on the Word of God by word of mouth–trustworthy men: episcopoi, presbyteroi, diaconoi.
The Bible also offers a decision-making model for determining truth handling and the refutation of error–the Conciliar Model of Acts 15: “It is the decision of the Holy Spirit and ours too.”
The Catholic Church has faithfully followed that model from Nicaea to Vatican II.
The trustworthy men entrusted to hand on the Word of God are found among the Apostolic Fathers (1st and 2nd centuries), the Post-Apostolic Fathers (2nd to 8th centuries), and the Doctors of the Church.
The latest expression of the constant faith of the Church, handed on by trustworthy men in direct succession from the Apostolic Church is found in the documents of Second Vatican Council.
Paul defines the New Testament people chosen to hand on the Revelation of the Word of God.
2 Tim 2:2: The things which you have heard from me through many witnesses you must hand on to trustworthy men who will be able to teach others. (NAB)
Paul also continues to describe who the “trustworthy men” are who are to hand on the Revelation of God.
The first category of “trustworthy men” is “episcopoi”, bishops.
1 Tim 3:1-2: You can depend on this: whoever wants to be a bishop (episcopes) aspires to a noble task. A bishop (episcopon) must be irreproachable, married only once, of even temper, self controlled, modest, and hospitable. He should be a good teacher. (NAB)
Tit 1:7,9: The bishop (episcopon) as God’s steward must be blameless. …In his teaching he must hold fast to the authentic message, so that he will be able both to encourage men to follow sound doctrine and to refute those who contradict it. (NAB)
The second category of “trustworthy men” is “presbyteroi”, the presbyters, priests, elders.
Tit 1:6: As I instructed you, a presbyter (presbyterois) must be irreproachable, married only once, the father of children who are believers and are not known to be wild and insubordinate. (NAB)
1 Tim 5:17: Presbyters who do well as leaders deserve to be paid double, especially those whose work is preaching and teaching. (NAB)
The third category of “trustworthy men” is “diakonoi”, deacons.
1 Tim 4:6,13,16: If you put these instructions before the brotherhood you will be a good servant (diakonos) of Christ Jesus, reared in the words of faith and the sound doctrine you have faithfully followed …until I arrive, devote yourself to the reading of Scripture. to preaching and teaching …watch yourself and watch your teaching. (NAB)
1 Tim 3:8-9: In the same way, deacons (diakonous) must be serious, straightforward, and truthful. They may not overindulge in drink or give in to greed. They must hold fast to the divinely revealed faith with a clear conscience. (NAB)
The Bible testifies that the Apostolic Church exercised this teaching authority “holding fast to the authentic message …refuting those who contradict it” (Tit 1:9) beyond the words and deeds of Jesus Christ.
In Acts 15: The Council of Jerusalem, we find the Biblical Model for Handing on Truth and Refuting Error.
The Acts of the Apostles records that there were different truths being taught regarding keeping the Mosaic Law. One group represented by Judaizers taught that Gentile Christians must come to the Christian life through keeping the Mosaic Law; the second group represented by Paul taught that Gentile Christians did not need to keep the Mosaic Law. There was also no Scripture regarding the truth of the issue. So they appealed the authority of the Holy Spirit in council. The Catholic Church has followed this model ever since.
Error in teaching:
Acts 15:1: “Some men came down to Antioch from Judea and began to teach the brothers, “Unless you are circumcised according to Mosaic practice, you cannot be saved.” (NAB)
Dissension and controversy:
Acts 15:2: “This created dissension and much controversy between them and Paul and Barnabas. (NAB)
Appeal to the apostles and presbyters in Jerusalem:
Acts 15:2: “Finally it was decided that Paul, Barnabas and some others should go up to see the apostles and presbyters in Jerusalem about this question. (NAB)
Apostles and presbyters convened: Acts 15:6
“The Apostles and the presbyters accordingly convened to look into the matter.” (NAB)
Discussion:
Peter—Acts 15:7-11: “After much discussion, Peter took the floor and said to them: “Brothers, you know well enough that from the early days God selected me from your number to be the one from whose lips the Gentiles would hear the message of the Gospel and believe. God, who reads the hearts of men, showed his approval by granting the Holy Spirit to them just as he did to us, He made no distinction between them and us, but purified their hearts by means of faith also. Why, then do you put God to the test by trying to place on the shoulders of these converts a yoke which neither we or our fathers were able to bear? Our belief is rather that we are saved by the favor of the Lord Jesus and so are they”
Barnabas and Paul—Acts 15:12: “At that the whole assembly fell silent. They listened to Barnabas and Paul as the two described all the signs and wonders God had worked among the Gentiles through them.”
James—Acts 15:13-21: “When they concluded their presentation, James spoke up:` Brothers, `listen to me. Symeon (Simon Peter) has told you how God first concerned himself with taking from among the Gentiles a people to bear his name. The words of prophets agree with this, where it says in scripture. `Hereafter I will return and rebuild the fallen hut of David: from its ruins I will rebuild it and set it up again, so that all the rest of mankind and all the nations that bear my name may seek out the Lord. Thus says the Lord who accomplishes these things known to him from old.’ It is my judgment, therefore, that we ought not to cause God’s Gentile converts and difficulties. We should merely write to them to abstain from anything contaminated by idols, from illicit sexual union, from meat of strangled animals, and from eating blood. After all, for generations now Moses has been proclaimed in every town and has been read aloud in the synagogues on every sabbath.”
Problem is resolved:
Acts 15:22:: “It was resolved by the apostles and the presbyters in agreement with the whole Jerusalem church… (NAB)
Decree is promulgated:
Acts 15:23-27: …chosen were leading men of the community …to deliver this letter …The apostles and presbyters, your brothers, send greetings …(NAB)
The authority of the Holy Spirit is appealed:
Acts 15:28: It is the decision of the Holy Spirit, and ours too … (NAB)
Paradosis or tradition falls into two categories. The difference can be seen in Acts 15. Besides the issue of following the Mosaic Law for gentile converts which meant primarily circumcision, the Council of Jerusalem also decreed that converts had “to abstain from anything contaminated by idols, from illicit sexual union, from the meat of strangled animals, and from eating blood” (Acts 15:20).
There are clearly distinguished paradosis or traditions which are considered irrevocable, unchangeable, even to our day, e.g., circumcision is not a requirement for new Christians. On the other hand, today we would not be concerned with things “contaminated by idols,” how an animal is killed for meat, or whether blood is in our food. These appear to be different traditions from the former–changeable and not binding in the same way as non-circumcision.
The Roman Catholic Church also follows this biblical model in her approach to paradosis/traditions.
Hence, there are paradosis/traditions which are unchangeable, capital letter “T”, “Traditions”. These are the defined faith or moral teachings based on the Bible but revealed by the Holy Spirit as an authority in the Church (Acts 15:28). An example from the history of the Roman Catholic Church of Tradition (with a capital letter “T”) is the teaching on purgatory. This teaching of the Church can never change.
There appear to be paradosis/traditions which are changeable, small letter “t”, “traditions.” These are the “rules of the organization, rules of the club,” these change as people, culture, faith and understanding develop. An example from the history of the Roman Catholic Church of tradition (with a lower case letter “t”) is the teaching on the prohibition on eating meat on Fridays. This practice of mandatory abstinence as penance in the Church has changed.
Acts 15 Model: General or Ecumenical Councils of the Church Universal.
Following the example of the Apostolic Church in the persons of the Apostles in the book of Acts, especially chapter 15, the Roman Catholic Church is motivated by a number of scriptures.
The Roman Catholic Church takes seriously the need to know the truth and to refute error.
John15:26: “When the Paraclete comes, the Spirit of Truth who comes from the Father -and whom I myself will send from the Father – he will bear witness on my behalf.” (NAB)
John 16:12: “I have much more to tell you, but you cannot bear it now. When he comes, however, being the Spirit of Truth he will guide you to all truth.” (NAB)
Acts 1:8: “You will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes down on you; then you are to be my witnesses in Jerusalem, throughout Judea and Samaria, yes, even to the ends of the earth.” (NAB)
2 Pet 2:1: “In times past there were false prophets among God’s people, and among you also there will be false teachers who will smuggle in pernicious heresies. …Their condemnation has not lain idle all this time; their destruction is not asleep.” (NAB)
Tit 1:9 “In his (episcopon) teaching he must hold fast to the authentic message, so that he will be able both to encourage men to follow sound doctrine and to refute those who contradict it. There are many irresponsible teachers …men who are empty talkers and deceivers. These must be silenced.” (NAB)
Gal 1:6-9: “I am amazed that you are so soon deserting him who called you in accord with his gracious design in Christ, and are going over to another gospel. But there is no other. Some who wish to alter the gospel of Christ must have confused you. For even if we, or an angel from heaven, should preach to you a gospel not in accord with the one we delivered to you, let a curse be upon him! I repeat what I have just said: if anyone preaches a gospel to you other than the one you received, let a curse be upon him!” (NAB)
The Catholic Church also understands the need to interpret correctly the truth of all of the Bible. The Bible warns us that there will be incorrect interpretation without authority. All interpretations of a scripture cannot be equally true (it is contrary to the nature of truth); some interpretations of the same scripture are mutually incompatible (e.g., Mt 16:16; Jo 6). Hence there must be an authority to whom truth and error can be appealed.
2 Pet 3:16: “There are certain passages in them (Paul’s letters) hard to understand. The ignorant and the unstable distort them (just as they do the rest of Scripture) to their own ruin.” (NAB)
The Catholic Church accepts the authority both of Divine Revelation and of the Holy Spirit. Deviation from the truth must be cursed and condemned.
Rom 13:1: “Let everyone obey the authorities that are over him, for there is no authority except from God, and all authority that exists is established by God. As a consequence, the man who opposes authority rebels against the ordinance of God; those who resist this shall draw condemnation down upon themselves.” (NAB)
2 Thess 2:8: “This lawless one will appear as part of the workings of Satan, accompanied by all the powers and signs and wonders at the disposal of falsehood–by every seduction the wicked can devise for those destined to ruin because they have not opened their hearts to the truth in order to be saved. Therefore, God is sending upon them a perverse spirit which leads them to give credence to falsehood, so that all that have not believed the truth but have delighted in evildoing will be condemned.” (NAB)
The Church exercised her teaching authority (under the guidance of the Holy Spirit) and called trustworthy men together in universal (ecumenical) council for renewal and reformation, and when truths were abandoned and error (heresy) was being taught (Titus 1:9). The truth was expressed and defined; error and false teachers condemned (“anathema sit”, “let them [him, it] be anathema, condemned, damned”).
The history of the ecumenical councils attests to the fidelity of the Roman Catholic Church to the teaching and direction of both the authority of Scripture and the authority of the Holy Spirit.
Let us refer to the CCC concerning the the teaching office of the Church:
888 Bishops, with priests as co‑workers, have as their first task “to preach the Gospel of God to all men,” in keeping with the Lord’s command. They are “heralds of faith, who draw new disciples to Christ; they are authentic teachers” of the apostolic faith “endowed with the authority of Christ.”
889 In order to preserve the Church in the purity of the faith handed on by the apostles, Christ who is the Truth willed to confer on her a share in his own infallibility. By a “supernatural sense of faith” the People of God, under the guidance of the Church’s living Magisterium, “unfailingly adheres to this faith.”
890 The mission of the Magisterium is linked to the definitive nature of the covenant established by God with his people in Christ. It is this Magisterium’s task to preserve God’s people from deviations and defections and to guarantee them the objective possibility of professing the true faith without error. Thus, the pastoral duty of the Magisterium is aimed at seeing to it that the People of God abides in the truth that liberates. To fulfill this service, Christ endowed the Church’s shepherds with the charism of infallibility in matters of faith and morals. The exercise of this charism takes several forms:
891 “The Roman Pontiff, head of the college of bishops, enjoys this infallibility in virtue of his office, when, as supreme pastor and teacher of all the faithful ‑ who confirms his brethren in the faith he proclaims by a definitive act a doctrine pertaining to faith or morals…. The infallibility promised to the Church is also present in the body of bishops when, together with Peter’s successor, they exercise the supreme Magisterium,” above all in an Ecumenical Council.[418] When the Church through its supreme Magisterium proposes a doctrine “for belief as being divinely revealed,” and as the teaching of Christ, the definitions “must be adhered to with the obedience of faith.” This infallibility extends as far as the deposit of divine Revelation itself.
892 Divine assistance is also given to the successors of the apostles, teaching in communion with the successor of Peter, and, in a particular way, to the bishop of Rome, pastor of the whole Church, when, without arriving at an infallible definition and without pronouncing in a “definitive manner,” they propose in the exercise of the ordinary Magisterium a teaching that leads to better understanding of Revelation in matters of faith and morals. To this ordinary teaching the faithful “are to adhere to it with religious assent” which, though distinct from the assent of faith, is nonetheless an extension of it.
The Charism of Infallibility: The Magisterium.
85 “The task of giving an authentic interpretation of the Word of God, whether in its written form or in the form of Tradition, has been entrusted to the living teaching office of the Church alone. Its authority in this matter is exercised in the name of Jesus Christ.” This means that the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the Bishop of Rome.
86 “Yet this Magisterium is not superior to the Word of God, but is its servant. It teaches only what has been handed on to it. At the divine command and with the help of the Holy Spirit, it listens to this devotedly, guards it with dedication and expounds it faithfully. All that it proposes for belief as being divinely revealed is drawn from this single deposit of faith.”
87 Mindful of Christ’s words to his apostles: “He who hears you, hears me”, the faithful receive with docility the teachings and directives that their pastors give them in different forms.
The Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Vatican Council II, 25
Bishops, teaching in communion with the Roman Pontiff are to be respected by all as witnesses to divine and Catholic truth.
In matters of faith and morals, the bishops speak in the name of Christ, and the faithful are to accept their teaching and adhere to it with a religious assent of souls.
This religious submission of will and of mind must be shown in a special way to the authentic teaching authority of the Roman Pontiff, even when he is not speaking ex cathedra …his supreme magisterium is acknowledged …the judgments made by him …adhered to …known chiefly from the character of the documents, from his frequent repetition of the same doctrine, from his manner of speaking.
…the individual bishops do not enjoy the prerogative of infallibility, they can …proclaim Christ’s doctrine of infallibility …when they are dispersed around the world …maintaining the bond of unity among themselves and with Peter’s successor, while teaching authentically on a matter of faith or morals, concur in a single viewpoint as the one which must be held …
This authority is even more clearly verified when, gathered together in an ecumenical council, they are teachers and judges of faith and morals for the universal church.
Their definitions must be adhered to with the submission of faith.
This infallibility with which the divine Redeemer willed his Church to be endowed in defining a doctrine of faith and morals extends as far as the deposit of divine revelation which must be religiously guarded and faithfully expounded.
This is the infallibility which the Roman Pontiff, the head of the college of bishops enjoys in virtue of his office, when as the supreme shepherd and teacher of all the faithful, who confirms his brethren in their faith, proclaims …some doctrine of faith or morals. Therefore his definitions, of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church, are justly styled irreformable, for they are pronounced with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, assistance promised to him in blessed Peter …need no approval of others, nor do they allow an appeal to any other judgment.
…the Roman Pontiff is not pronouncing judgment as a private person …but rather as the supreme teacher of the universal Church, as one in whom the charism of infallibility of the Church herself is individually present, he is expounding or defending a doctrine of Catholic faith.
The infallibility promised to the Church resides also in the body of bishops when that body exercises supreme teaching authority with the successor of Peter …When either the Roman Pontiff, or the body of bishops together with him defines a judgment they pronounce it in accord with Revelation itself …Under the guiding light of the Holy Spirit, Revelation is thus religiously preserved and faithfully expounded in the Church.
The Roman Pontiff and the bishops, strive painstakingly and by appropriate means to inquire properly into that Revelation and to give apt expression to its contents. …they do not allow that there could be any new public revelation pertaining to the divine deposit of truth.
The Four Levels of Magisterial Teaching
- The top level is the solemn definition, of course, which is infallible.
Vatican Council II, therefore, wrote, “His definitions of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church, are rightly called unchangeable, for they are pronounced with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, as assistance promised him in blessed Peter. So they need no approval from others, nor is there room for an appeal to any other judgment” (Lumen Gentium, On the Church, 25).
The pope, with or without a council, need not use a set formula of words to define. He–or they–must simply clarify the intention to define in some way.
2. As the top level is the extraordinary infallible magisterium or solemn definition, the second level is the ordinary infallible magisterium. Vatican Council II was merely expressing traditional teaching in this statement, “Although the individual bishops do not have the prerogative of infallibility, they can yet teach Christ’s doctrine infallibly. This is true even when they are scattered around the world, provided that, while maintaining the bond of unity among themselves and with the successor of Peter, they concur in a teaching as the one which must be definitively held” (ibid., 25). This is the day-to-day teaching of the Church throughout the world, when it presents matters to be held definitively as part of the deposit of faith.
How can we know when the Church intends to teach infallibly on the second level? Everything depends on the intention of the teachers; they must in some way clarify that they intend to make this teaching one to be held definitively as part of the deposit of faith. If for any reason they fail to make this point clear, we need not consider the item as infallibly taught on the second level–although, of course, it might be guaranteed in a different way.
We likewise take note that it is required that the bishops teach in unison with one another, as well as with the pope; otherwise their teaching will not be infallible.
3.The third level of the magisterium is based on the pope’s teaching authority in a way that excludes further discussion, much less dissent. We commonly note this level in the encyclicals.
Another way of describing this level is certitude from the promise of Christ. In his Encyclical, Humani Generis, Pope Pius XII made some important clarifications, due to a current error to minimize the range of teaching that Catholics are obliged to believe. He wrote, “Nor must it be thought that things contained in encyclical letters do not of themselves require assent of the mind on the plea that in them the pontiffs do not exercise the supreme power of their magisterium. These things are taught with the ordinary magisterium, about which it is also true to say, `He who hears you, hears me'” (Luke 10:16).
When I spoke about level two, I said that the pope and bishops together, even when scattered throughout the world, can teach infallibly when they present something as definitively part of the faith. Now Pope Pius XII pointed out that the pope alone, because he can speak for the whole Church, even when he is not making a definition, can effect a universal papal teaching or the equivalent of a teaching of the pope with a council. He can teach definitively in such a way that his doctrine is protected by the promise of Christ: “He who hears you, hears me.” Such a teaching clearly pertains to the faith.
4. The fourth level of the magisterium provides moral certitude, that is, it provides safe opinions. (Moral certitude is that kind which generates actions on our part that are based on the typical judgements of prudent persons with common sense, balance and experience. They provide the safety factor in uncertain areas of life.)
Not everything written in a papal encyclical or other similar documents, not even everything spoken by a council, is intended to be a definitive teaching. This is clear from the new Code of Canon Law, no. 752: “Not indeed an assent of faith, but yet a religious submission on mind and will must be given to the teaching which either the supreme pontiff or the college of bishops pronounces on faith and morals when they exercise the authentic magisterium, even if they do not intend to proclaim it by a definitive act.”
An Apologetical Note: Why believe the Church? Why should we believe the Church’s teaching authority? We certainly don’t believe because we consider a particular pope holy, smart, well-educated and so forth. Those qualities are irrelevant. It is precisely and only because Jesus, who proved he was a messenger sent from God, commissioned his apostles to teach and promised that he would protect their teaching: “He who hears you, hears me” (Luke 10:16; cf. Matthew 18:17). What is more, he meant this help for all ages: “Behold I am with you all days, even to the end of the world” (Matthew 28:20).
[1]A General Council is a meeting of Bishops, representative of the entire Church, summoned by the Pope, deliberating under his direction, and issuing decrees or condemnations, which however have no force unless he confirms them. That the concurrence and approval of the Pope are necessary for the work of a General Council follows from the doctrine of Apostolicity. Absolute unanimity is not required. Observe that a Bishop teaches his subjects, not only personally but through his priests and school-teachers and through the catechisms or text-books which he prescribes.
[2]Adv. Haeres., III. 3. In either interpretation the words refer to a higher doctrinal authority.
[3]Their founder, Montanus, claimed to be a prophet sent by God to supplement the moral teaching of Christ.
[4]Athanasius: Apologia contra Arianos, n. 33.
[5]Hardiun, t. 2, p. 656. See Newman, op. cit., for fuller list of authorities.
[6]1 Cor 9:27.
[7]A Papal definition has but one meaning intended by the Pope. A passage of inspired scripture on the other hand, may have, not only the literal meaning, but also a meaning of a higher order; thus, for instance, when God tells us of the sufferings of King David, He gives us an historical narrative and also a type or image of the future sufferings of His Son; or, take the words of Christ addressed to His Mother and St. John on Good Friday; Mary became the spiritual Mother of maThe Primacy of Saint Peternkind at the moment of the Incarnation; this truth was proclaimed by her Son on the Cross in words which have a literal meaning also.