Asa H. Craig, (Asa Hollister), 1847-1934
As has been mentioned in a preceding chapter, this “Thirty Years’ War” was the last great combat between Protestants and Catholics in Europe. It was the most disastrous conflict since the beginning of the Christian Era. History informs us that its effect upon Germany alone was beyond calculation, that it is impossible to give expression to its wretchedness, its devastation of cities, homes, and country. In 1618, the date of the commencement of this struggle, Germany had a population of 30,000,000; at its close, in 1648, it numbered less than 12,000,000. No one can comprehend this terrible destruction of life and property. Many of the most flourishing cities were almost completely destroyed, and commerce, trade and industries ruined. The magnificent city of Berlin was reduced to a few hundred destitute and starving people. The duchy of Württemberg could scarcely number 60,000 individuals, where before there flourished more than half a million. The ruins of the homes of peasants were on every hand — on all sides was despair and desolation. The country was literally a blackened waste of war’s destruction. No enterprise, no trade, no commerce, nothing of the arts, sciences, or learning. Education was entirely neglected, except the education for war. Children were born and grew to manhood with the cry of Reformation on their lips, with the denunciation of all things Catholic in their hearts, and with war as the only aim of life. It was the most barbaric age of German existence. Moral law was lost in the forgetfulness of duty to mankind. Vice, nourished by the impure atmosphere of constant camp life, had full sway; licentiousness ruled supreme. Cities that erstwhile had spread renown with their paintings and sculptures, now lay in ruins and neglect. “In character, in intelligence, and in morality, the German people were set back two hundred years.”
The followers of Martin Luther may declare that this awful calamity was the work of Catholics and of Catholic inception, but in this they are much mistaken. It was a conflict almost directly traceable to Protestant revolt from the Roman Church, and we find that the spirit of conquest and political aspirations entered largely into it. But construe it as we may, it was the termination of the great religious revolt, or Reformation, begun by Martin Luther, Ulric Zwingli, and John Calvin. While they may rejoice in the overthrow of Papal authority, yet their victory was gained only by an enormous sacrifice of blood and treasure. The desolation of the German empire; the 18,000,000 people lost in the conflict; the destruction of commerce; the decline of architecture, of learning and of science; the loss of character; the political disunion; the vice, misery, and degradation incident to a war of this nature: all these must be added to the price of their victory.
In 1608 the Protestants of Germany formed the Evangelical Union for the purpose of encroaching upon Catholic religious sovereignty, by extending their form of worship. In order to defend themselves against this encroachment the Catholics, the following year, organized a confederation known as the Holy League. These two organizations at times became desperately hostile, and all Germany was being rapidly prepared for the fierce religious war that soon followed.
The first cry of war was in Bohemia, where the Protestants rose in revolt against their Catholic king, Ferdinand. Having overthrown Ferdinand, they elected Frederick V, of the Palatinate, son-in-law of James I of England. The new Protestant king immediately expelled the Jesuits, commanded obedience to his decree of worship, and established the religion of Martin Luther throughout the province. The Bohemian king, Ferdinand, again obtained control of imperial affairs, however, and his followers elected him emperor and rallied to his support. As the Catholics were highly incensed at the Protestant king, Frederick, for his unjust conduct against the Jesuits, and the enforcement of his creed among the people, they made a desperate effort to regain their religious rights, and in this effort Ferdinand was successful. The revolt was quelled, the leaders of the insurrection executed, and the reformation in Bohemia came to an ignominious end.
The success of Ferdinand created consternation among the Protestant German princes, and they appealed to the king of Denmark, Christian IV, to come to their assistance. The king, being supported by England and Holland, willingly entered the contest in behalf of the German Protestants, who were greatly encouraged by this new alliance. On the side of the Catholics were two noted leaders — Tilly, who commanded the Holy League, and Wallenstein, who commanded the Imperial army.
The struggle that followed was desperate in the extreme. The Protestants fought to overthrow the Church of Rome, and the Catholics to regain their confiscated property — churches, monasteries, and other ecclesiastical lands. On the one side it was to conquer Romanism and extend the Reformation; while on the other, it was to regain possession of what was lost. In this war Christian was defeated and, in 1629, sued for peace and retired from the struggle. In this peace the Edict of Restitution restored to the Catholics of North Germany all the property confiscated by the Protestants, in violation of the terms agreed to at Augsburg in 1555.
In this connection it may be well to mention the nature of this Augsburg treaty. It was a convention of the princes of the German states whereby it was agreed that every prince should decide the faith he and his people should follow, taking his choice between the Catholic and Protestant religions, and when he had chosen his religion, that religion must remain inviolate. As will be seen, the people were not considered at all. If a prince decided to become a Protestant, his subjects must become followers of the same faith, whether so inclined or not. It was toleration to princes, but intoleration to the people. As the people were originally Catholic, it became a religious burden and a persecution. But, according to this agreement, each prince should have complete religious control, and no force should be resorted to, to add to or take from. It was an agreement binding each party to observe the religious rights of others.
It was the violation of this treaty that was largely responsible for the declaration of war. The Protestants had confiscated valuable property which, in the Peace of Lubeck, restored to the Catholics, through the Edict of Restitution, two archbishoprics, twelve bishoprics, many monasteries with their valuable possessions, chapels, churches, and other ecclesiastical property.
In 1630, Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, resolved to throw his influence towards the German forces, and strive to regain what Protestantism had lost. Accordingly, at the head of 16,000 Swedes, he entered Northern Germany, but the dispirited Germans were slow to renew the conflict, and Tilly captured and burned the city of Magdeburg, and slew 30,000 of the inhabitants. The Protestant princes immediately upon this united their forces with the king of Sweden and, in 1631, at the celebrated battle of Leipsic, defeated Tilly with great loss. Later Tilly was again defeated and fatally wounded, thus giving Gustavus a decided victory.
Wallenstein was now called to head the armies of the Holy League, and, through his great popularity, was soon in command of 40,000 determined men who, in 1632, attacked the Swedes on the field of Lutzen, in Saxony, and gave them battle. This conflict was one of the most stubborn and desperate battles fought in the entire period of wars. The Swedes were victorious, but Gustavus was killed. Notwithstanding the Swedish king and commander was killed, the Swedes would not withdraw from the conflict, but continued to fight for the cause of Protestant Germany for several years thereafter.
And so the terrible desolation of war went on. Those who were engaged in the first years of the war, had now passed away, and new leaders, with new ideas of conquest, filled the ranks of those engaged in this greatest of religious struggles. It was not until 1643 that the first whisperings of peace were heard. The country was ruined, the cities depopulated, and yet with all this bloodshed, rapine, murder, and desolation, no one desired peace unless on terms advantageous to his side. Peace would be gladly welcomed, but it must be a Protestant or a Catholic peace. The division of territory must be made in such a manner as to be satisfactory to Sweden, Germany, France, and the Roman States. For five years there was constant discussion and negotiation, until at last the celebrated treaty of Westphalia was established and agreed to by the different European powers.
The chief articles agreed to were divided into two divisions— territorial boundaries, and religious control. In the division of territory, the Holy Roman empire was shorn of some of its possessions. Switzerland was declared no longer a subject of Rome, although in reality it had been independent for a long time. The United Netherlands was also declared independent, while France gathered in the cities of Metz, Toul, Verdun, and a large portion of Alsace and Lorraine. Sweden was given a long strip on the Baltic Sea from Northern Germany, and in Germany many changes were made in favor of the various princes.
In the matter of religion, the Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists were placed on the same footing. The Protestants were to retain all the Church property in their possession in 1634, and every prince was to dictate the religion of his people, and given the power to banish all who refused to acknowledge established creed, but such persons were to be allowed three years in which to emigrate. It was religious toleration for three years, but after that all failing to comply with the requirements must be expelled.
Thus closed the most costly war in blood and treasure the world has ever seen. The strength of Germany had waned; it had become weak and dispirited. Her people had lost almost every sentiment of pride and hope. Her desolation was complete. Her population was decimated to less than one-half, her industries were ruined, her arts lost in the turmoil of war, and her advancement in Christianity almost entirely checked by the results of this most cruel and inhuman war.
But at last, we reach the end of the persecution. The Peace of Westphalia marks the end of the religious wars occasioned by the Reformation. A century and a third had almost passed since the first declaration of religious reform had been spoken. Martin Luther and John Calvin had long since gone to their final rest.
The seeds of the Reformation had established the two great religious creeds, Lutheranism and Calvinism, but we can never compute the cost of their establishment. To locate the followers of these two creeds by nationality, we might include Germany, Norway and Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, in the list of those most interested in the religion of Martin Luther, while the followers of John Calvin were the Huguenots of France, the Covenanters of Scotland, the Puritans of England, and the Pilgrim Fathers of the new world.
At this period history closes the general religious wars, although many minor conflicts and persecutions have prevailed. The treaty of Westphalia is a prominent monument in the dividing line of two great periods of history. It marks the religious end of the Reformation and the beginning of the troubles of political revolution. Henceforth nations will not make religion a basis of war and desolation. It will be wars of government, and not of creed; conquest for the sake of territory, and not the form of worship. It will be a scramble for place and preferment. The gospel of Christ will be preached for the repentance of men, and not for their persecution and crucifixion. And as we draw nearer and. nearer to the close of the nineteenth century, we more fully appreciate the blessings of toleration, the true influences of Christianity, the true spirit of devotion, discipline, and harmony. It is now no longer a conquest by force. The true faith of the Apostle Peter controls the mind, the heart, and conscience of men. It is no longer fire and sword, but the teachings of Christ, who, in the agonies of death, would forgive his enemies and in this forgiveness ask his Father in Heaven to also forgive “for they know not what they do.” The advancement of the Catholic Church is fast outstripping the Protestant faith. Its gospel has been translated and preached in every country of the earth. Its missions of peace have penetrated the dark interior of Asia and Africa. It is foremost in all the countries of South America, Mexico, and Central America. Its magnificent institutions are seen everywhere in the United States and Canada. It is no longer persecuted in England, Ireland, Germany, and Russia. The great Church of England is becoming friendly, and many believe in reuniting. The Greek Church of Russia is already considering a means erf uniting these two great forces in one. harmonious whole. The enemies of Rome no longer proclaim the Church as dangerous to civilization, to progress, and to education. The Pope today stands as the greatest arbiter of peace in the whole realm of diplomacy. He knows that war and religion do not go hand in hand, that national conflicts destroy the fruits of Christianity, divide nations, breed Atheism, and foster disobedience to God and His divine teachings.